Malta country profile

12 March 2013 Last updated at 09:33 GMT The Maltese archipelago includes the islands of Malta, Gozo, Comino, Comminotto and Filfla.

It has a history of colonial control spanning centuries.

Located south of the Italian island of Sicily between Europe and North Africa, it has been occupied by Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs and latterly France and Britain.

Independence from Britain was achieved in 1964, after the Maltese people were awarded the George Cross for defending the island during World War II.

Malta is a destination for Europe-bound migrants Continue reading the main story Politics: The Labour Party won elections in March 2013Economy: Financial services, tourism and manufacturing are key sectorsInternational: Malta pursues a policy of neutrality, while keeping close ties with Europe and the US

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

Forty years on Malta was the smallest of the 10 countries to join the EU in May 2004. It joined the eurozone in 2008.

Since becoming an EU member, the tiny island has reported an increasing problem with immigration from north Africa and has requested more help to deal with it.

The UN refugee agency has criticised the island's policy of keeping asylum seekers in detention for 18 months.

Over the centuries, Malta's strategic position fostered its development as an important trading post and it remains a leading centre for container and freight transhipment.

Malta is a popular holiday destination and tourism is the nation's main source of income.

Malta has a colonial history spanning centuries

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Moldova country profile

14 February 2013 Last updated at 18:29 GMT Sandwiched between Romania and Ukraine, Moldova emerged as an independent republic following the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

The bulk of it, between the rivers Dniester and Prut, is made up of an area formerly known as Bessarabia. This territory was annexed by the USSR in 1940 following the carve-up of Romania in the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact between Hitler's Germany and Stalin's USSR.

Two-thirds of Moldovans are of Romanian descent, the languages are virtually identical and the two countries share a common cultural heritage.

The industrialised territory to the east of the Dniester, generally known as Trans-Dniester or the Dniester region, was formally an autonomous area within Ukraine before 1940 when the Soviet Union combined it with Bessarabia to form the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Moldova is proud of its wines and has been looking to overseas markets Continue reading the main story Politics: Prime Minister Vlad Filat heads a pro-West three-party coalitionEconomy: One of Europe's poorest countries, Moldova depends on agricultural exports and transfers from citizens working abroadInternational: Moldova's government seeks closer European ties. The mainly Russian-speaking Trans-Dniester region proclaimed independence in 1990 but has not achieved international recognition

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

This area is mainly inhabited by Russian and Ukrainian speakers. As people there became increasingly alarmed at the prospect of closer ties with Romania in the tumultuous twilight years of the Soviet Union, Trans-Dniester unilaterally declared independence from Moldova in 1990.

There was fierce fighting there as it tried to assert this independence following the collapse of the USSR and the declaration of Moldovan sovereignty. Hundreds died. The violence ended with the introduction of Russian peacekeepers. Trans-Dniester's independence has never been recognised and the region has existed in a state of lawless and corrupt limbo ever since.

The region reasserted its demand for independence and also expressed support for a plan ultimately to join Russia in a September 2006 referendum which was unrecognised by Chisinau and the international community.

It still houses a stockpile of old Soviet military equipment and a contingent of troops of the Russian 14th army. Withdrawal began under international agreements in 2001 but was halted when the Trans-Dniester authorities blocked the dispatch of weapons. Subsequent agreements to resume did not reach fruition as relations between Moscow and Chisinau cooled.

The Moldovan parliament granted autonomous status to the Turkic-language speaking Gagauz region in the southwest of the republic in late 1994. It has powers over its own political, economic and cultural affairs.

Moldova is one of the poorest countries in Europe and has a large foreign debt and high unemployment. Its once-flourishing wine trade has been in decline and it is heavily dependent on Russia for energy supplies.

The Russian gas supplier Gazprom cut the gas supply off at the beginning of 2006 when Moldova refused to pay twice the previous price. A temporary compromise arrangement was reached soon afterwards and the two sides agreed a new price in July 2006 with a further rise in 2007.

Gas supplies were cut off again for several weeks in January 2009, this time as a result of a dispute over prices between supplier Russia and transit country Ukraine.

Moldovans fish through the ice on a lake near the capital Chisinau.

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Monaco country profile

3 July 2013 Last updated at 10:40 GMT Monaco is the second-smallest independent state in the world. It is a playground for tourists and a haven for the wealthy, the former drawn by its climate and the beauty of its setting and the latter by its advantageous tax regime.

The country - a constitutional monarchy - is surrounded on three sides by France and occupies just under two square kilometres (0.75 sq mile) of the Cote d'Azur, where the Alpes Maritimes meet the Mediterranean.

Tourism drives Monaco's economy; gamblers flock to the Place du Casino in Monte-Carlo and every May the principality hosts the Monaco Grand Prix.

The country is a major banking centre and closely guards the privacy of its clients.

Francois Grimaldi, the royal dynasty's 13th century founder Continue reading the main story Politics: Monaco is ruled by the Grimaldi dynasty. A Council of Government governs under royal authority. The monarch is Prince Albert II Economy: Monaco does not impose income tax and is a haven for wealthy individuals and foreign companies. Banking and tourism are key sectorsInternational: Monaco has a customs union and open border with France. It spent five years on an international blacklist of uncooperative tax havens

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

But it has also been the focus of French concerns about its tax policy and has been accused of tolerating money-laundering - claims it strongly denies.

The principality was identified as a tax haven by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2003. It was subsequently placed on the OECD's blacklist of uncooperative tax havens, remaining there until 2009.

Monaco does not levy income tax on its residents.

The royal dynasty, the Grimaldi family, is inseparable from Monaco's existence. The royals made world headlines in 1956 when the former monarch Prince Rainier III married the American film star Grace Kelly. But the personal lives of the couple's daughters, Caroline and Stephanie, had a less welcome press.

Within the executive, the monarch nominates and is represented by a Minister of State who leads a five-member Council of Government which governs Monaco under royal authority. A 24-member National Council to which elections are held every five years exercises legislative power.

Monaco is a playground for tourists and a haven for the wealthy

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Montenegro country profile

9 April 2013 Last updated at 15:01 GMT Montenegro emerged as a sovereign state after just over 55% of the population opted for independence in a May 2006 referendum.

The vote heralded the end of the former Union of Serbia and Montenegro - itself created only three years earlier out of the remnant of the former Yugoslavia.

The EU-brokered deal forming it was intended to stabilise the region by settling Montenegrin demands for independence from Serbia and preventing further changes to Balkan borders.

The same deal also contained the seeds of the union's dissolution. It stipulated that after three years the two republics could hold referendums on whether to keep or scrap it. Montenegro opted for the latter.

A narrow majority voted to dissolve the union with Serbia

Montenegro last experienced independence nearly 90 years earlier. It was absorbed into the newly-formed Yugoslavia at the end of World War I.

There were fears that the 2006 independence vote could lead to unrest in the areas of Montenegro where ethnic Serbs, who make up roughly a third of the population, formed the majority and strongly opposed separation from Serbia. There was backing for independence from most ethnic Montenegrins and ethnic Albanians living in Montenegro.

Continue reading the main story Politics: Montenegro opted for independence in a 2006 referendumEconomy: The tourism and real estate sectors have been gaining in importanceInternational: Candidate for EU membership - entry talks hinge on progress in fighting crime, corruption

Profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

The pro-independence camp led by Prime Minister Djukanovic argued that the association with Serbia was holding the republic back, not least with its bid for EU membership.

As the successor state to the union, Serbia inherited its seat at the UN and other international organisations. The newly-independent Montenegro has since been admitted to the UN in its own right.

The country officially applied to join the EU on 15 December 2008.

Striving for EU membership

Another important milestone on Montenegro's path to EU membership was reached towards the end of 2009, when Montenegrin citizens were granted the right to visa-free travel within the Schengen zone. Formal EU accession talks began in June 2012.

Only a few months earlier, Montenegro had taken another major step forward in full membership of the international community when it became a member of the World Trade Organisation in April 2012. It had applied for WTO membership in December 2004.

Montenegro, which means "Black Mountain", borders Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Serbia's breakaway province of Kosovo and Albania. About half of it is covered in thick forest. The tiny republic encompasses an Adriatic coastline, lowlands and high mountain ranges. The Tara River canyon is the deepest and longest in Europe.

Montenegro includes a coastline, mountain ranges and thick forests

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Nagorno-Karabakh profile

30 May 2012 Last updated at 15:29 GMT The landlocked mountainous region of Nagorno-Karabakh is the subject of an unresolved dispute between Azerbaijan, in which it lies, and its ethnic Armenian majority, backed by neighbouring Armenia.

In 1988, towards the end of Soviet rule, Azerbaijani troops and Armenian secessionists began a bloody war which left the de facto independent state in the hands of ethnic Armenians when a truce was signed in 1994.

Negotiations have so far failed to produce a permanent peace agreement, and the dispute remains one of post-Soviet Europe's "frozen conflicts."

The conflict has roots dating back well over a century into competition between Christian Armenian and Muslim Turkic and Persian influences.

Populated for centuries by Christian Armenian and Turkic Azeris, Karabakh became part of the Russian empire in the 19th century.

Continue reading the main story Territory is inside Azerbaijan, but population is mainly ethnic ArmenianWar followed 1991 declaration of independence; up to 30,000 killed, more than one million fled their homesRelations continued to be strained after 1994 ceasefire; first signs of a thaw appeared in 2008

Profile compiled by BBC Monitoring

The two groups lived in relative peace, although acts of brutality on both sides in the early 20th century live on in the popular memory.

After the end of World War I and the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, the new Soviet rulers, as part of their divide-and-rule policy in the region, established the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, with an ethnic Armenian majority, within the Soviet Socialist Republic of Azerbaijan in the early 1920s.

As Soviet control loosened towards the end of the 1980s, smouldering Armenian-Azeri frictions exploded into violence when the region's parliament voted to join Armenia.

During the fighting, in which between 20,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have lost their lives, the ethnic Armenians gained control of the region. The also pushed on to occupy Azerbaijani territory outside Karabakh, creating a buffer zone linking Karabakh and Armenia.

With the break-up of the Soviet Union, in late 1991, Karabakh declared itself an independent republic, further escalating the conflict into a full-scale war. That de facto status has not been recognised elsewhere.

Ceasefire

A Russian-brokered ceasefire was signed in 1994, leaving Karabakh as well as swathes of Azeri territory around the enclave in Armenian hands.

Ethnic Armenian militia gained control in a conflict which claimed up to 30,000 lives

During the fighting, in which more than one million fled their homes, the ethnic Azeri population - about 25% of the total before the war - fled Karabakh and Armenia while ethnic Armenians fled the rest of Azerbaijan. Neither population group has been able to return home since the end of the war.

Karabakh is a word of Turkic and Persian origin meaning "black garden", while "Nagorno-" is a Russian word meaning "mountain-". The ethnic Armenians prefer to call the region Artsakh, an ancient Armenian name for the area.

Both sides have had soldiers killed in sporadic breaches of the ceasefire. The closure of borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan has caused landlocked Armenia severe economic problems.

Since the truce, a simmering stalemate has prevailed. Azeris resent the loss of land they regard as rightfully theirs, while the Armenians show no sign of willingness to give it back.

Russia, France and the US co-chair the OSCE's Minsk Group, which has been attempting to broker an end to the dispute.

Signs of thaw

In a December 2006 referendum, declared illegitimate by Azerbaijan, the region approved a new constitution. Nonetheless, there have since been signs of life in the peace process, with occasional meetings between the Armenian and Azeri presidents.

Significant progress was reported at talks between the leaders in May and November 2009, but progress then stalled, and in 2010-11 there were a number of serious ceasefire violations.

Troops parade in Stepanakert to mark the 20th anniversary of what Nagorno Karabakh calls its independence

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Netherlands profile

17 March 2013 Last updated at 13:21 GMT The Netherlands' name reflects its low-lying topography, with more than a quarter of its total area under sea level.

Now a constitutional monarchy, the country began its independent life as a republic in the 16th century, when the foundations were laid for it to become one of the world's foremost maritime trading nations.

Although traditionally among the keener advocates of the European Union, Dutch voters echoed those in France by spurning the proposed EU constitution in a 2005 referendum.

The Netherlands has produced many of the world's most famous artists from Rembrandt and Vermeer in the 17th century to Van Gogh in the 19th and Mondrian in the 20th. It attracts visitors from across the globe.

A massive retaining wall, or dyke, separates the Netherlands from the North Sea Continue reading the main story Politics: A left-right coalition government was formed in November 2012, after months of deadlock over plans to cut the budget deficit Economy: The economy is primarily services-based but trade also plays a major roleInternational: The Netherlands plays a central role in the European Union and Dutch forces have been active in UN peacekeeping efforts

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

After a longstanding policy of neutrality between Europe's great powers, the bitter experience of invasion and occupation during World War II led the Netherlands to become a leading supporter of international cooperation.

Almost 20% of the total area of the Netherlands is water, and much of the land has been reclaimed from the North Sea in efforts that date back to medieval times and have spawned an extensive system of dykes.

It is one of the world's most densely populated nations. As in many European countries, over-65s make up an increasing percentage of that population, leading to greater demands on the welfare system.

After two decades of strong growth and low unemployment, the economy ran into more troubled waters as global trade, in which the Netherlands is a major player, slowed in the early years of the new millennium.

There was concern that Dutch society's longstanding tradition of tolerance was under threat when homosexual anti-immigration politician Pim Fortuyn was assassinated in 2002.

Anxiety over increased racial tension has intensified further since the murder in 2004 of Theo Van Gogh who had made a film on the position of women in Islamic society. A violent Islamic extremist later confessed and was jailed for life. After Mr Van Gogh's killing, the government hardened its line on immigration and failed asylum seekers.

Amsterdam: Much of the city lies at, or below, sea level

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North Ossetia profile

6 November 2012 Last updated at 14:58 GMT One of Russia's smallest regions, mountainous North Ossetia has fallen prey to the spillover from the violent unrest that plagues its neighbours in the volatile North Caucasus.

This was starkly illustrated in September 2004, when armed attackers stormed a school in the town of Beslan. In the violent end to the siege 330 people were killed; more than half of them were children.

Russian President Vladimir Putin said the attackers were international terrorists with links to Chechen separatists and funding from al-Qaeda. He accused them of seeking to unleash violence across the North Caucasus in order to strike at Russia's south.

Ousted Chechen separatist president Aslan Maskhadov, who was killed just six months later, condemned the seizure of the school but blamed Russian policy in Chechnya, describing the attackers as "madmen" seeking to avenge the Chechen people for atrocities carried out by Russians.

Remembering the victims: The Beslan siege ended in a bloodbath

The only attacker thought to have survived was later sentenced to life imprisonment. Campaigners continue to accuse the Russian authorities of a cover-up and want further investigation into events leading up to and during the siege.

Attacks blamed on Islamist insurgents continue to plague North Ossetia. Speaking after a bomb blast killed 17 people in the regional capital Vladikavkaz in September 2010, regional president Taymuraz Mamsurov said the authorities were "at war with terrorists" in the North Caucasus.

History

Ethnic Ossetians and Russians make up most of the population of North Ossetia. Russian influence in the area increased in the 18th century with the founding of a military outpost at Vladikavkaz.

In the early 1920s the territory was part of the short-lived Soviet Mountain Republic - made up of six districts including Chechnya and Ingushetia. Autonomous status was given to the districts in 1924; in 1936 North Ossetia became an autonomous Soviet republic.

North Ossetia fought a bloody conflict with its eastern neighbour, the Russian republic of Ingushetia, shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Ingush forces, in pursuit of a historical claim to Prigorodny district on the right bank of the Terek river, were repelled in 1992 with the support of Moscow. Hundreds died in the fighting, and many thousands of Ingush civilians fled North Ossetia for Ingushetia.

Ossetians divided

War broke out in the South Ossetia region of Georgia, just over the border from North Ossetia, in August 2008. Russian forces drove Georgian troops out of the region, which declared independence from Georgia in 1991 and has been run by a secessionist government ever since.

Thousands of South Ossetians fled to the North in the 1990s amid the violence that followed the declaration of independence. North Ossetia maintains strong ethnic links with the territory.

Rich in resources - including unexploited oil and gas reserves - North Ossetia is the most industrialised and urbanised republic in the North Caucasus. It also has tourism potential; plans for a ski resort were announced in 2003.

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Norway profile

3 July 2013 Last updated at 09:51 GMT

Europe's northernmost country, the Kingdom of Norway is famed for its mountains and spectacular fjord coastline, as well as its history as a seafaring power.

It also enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world, in large part due to the discovery in the late 1960s of offshore oil and gas deposits.

Norway's annual oil revenue amounts to around $40bn (£21bn), and more than half of its exports come from this sector. To counter inflation, spending of oil revenue was restricted.

The considerable surplus is invested in a sovereign wealth fund, estimated in 2009 at $400bn.

What to do with the money is one of the country's most contentious political issues. The centre-right want more of it to be used to fund infrastructure improvements, while the centre-left wants to keep it invested for future generations.

The royal family in Norway has a strong identity

Norway declared its independence in 1905 when the union with Sweden was dissolved. Norway's people value their independence and prosperity highly. The Norwegians rejected membership of the then European Economic Community in 1972, and of the European Union in 1994, despite being urged by their governments to vote "yes".

In recent decades, Norway has forged a stronger role for itself in international politics. It has mediated between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation, and from 2000 to 2009 was the chief mediator in the conflict between the Sri Lankan government and Tamil separatists.

Norway has a rich, sea-faring tradition and its lengthy, rugged coastline has been central to its development.

Continue reading the main story Politics: Labour Party leader Jens Stoltenberg heads a centre-left government. Parliamentary elections are due in 2013Economy: Norway enjoys massive oil and gas wealth. Surplus revenue is invested in a sovereign wealth fund. Unemployment is lowInternational: Norway is a Nato member and maintains troops in Afghanistan. Voters have rejected EU membership

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

More than a thousand years ago, Viking raids on the coasts of Britain and France were commonplace. The Vikings also mounted expeditions to the coast of North America.

Later, the Norwegians began to trade. Originally, the coastal waters provided fish for export. Today, Norway is among the world's largest exporters of fuels and fuel products.

Norway registered objections to the 1986 International Whaling Commission (IWC) ban on whaling and resumed the practice on a commercial basis in 1993. It argues that whaling is no more cruel than fishing and that stocks are sufficient to allow it to continue. Conservationists disagree.

Longyearbyen is a haven for eco-tourists who come to see the abundant polar bears, seals and whales

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Poland country profile

3 July 2013 Last updated at 10:02 GMT A nation with a proud cultural heritage, Poland can trace its roots back over 1,000 years. Positioned at the centre of Europe, it has known turbulent and violent times.

There have been periods of independence as well as periods of domination by other countries. Several million people, half of them Jews, died in World War II.

A new era began when Poland became an EU member in May 2004, five years after joining Nato and 15 years after the end of communist rule.

It was the birthplace of the former Soviet bloc's first officially recognised independent mass political movement when strikes at the Gdansk shipyard in August 1980 led to agreement with the authorities on the establishment of the Solidarity trade union.

Poland entered a new era by joining the European Union in 2004 Continue reading the main story Politics: Prime Minister Donald Tusk's governing coalition won a second term in October 2011 Economy: The economy has boomed since EU accession in 2004, and Poland is one of the region's top-performing countries. Unemployment remains highInternational: The governing coalition seeks deeper EU integration, eventual euro membership. Poland is one of Europe's most pro-American countries

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

The shoots of political freedom were trampled again 16 months later when communist leader Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law. But the movement for change was irreversible. Elections in summer 1989 ushered in eastern Europe's first post-communist government.

The presence in the Vatican of Polish Pope John-Paul II was an important influence on the Solidarity movement throughout the 1980s. The Roman Catholic church remains a very potent force in Polish life.

In the years between the end of communism and EU accession, power in Poland switched between the centre right and the centre left. Successive governments faced sleaze allegations.

In elections in 2010, the victory of the centre-right Civic Platfrom saw Prime Minister Donald Tusk become the first Polish leader to be re-elected since the end of communism.

Success

Poland has made major economic strides since the fall of communism, and especially since joining the EU. In 2009, when all the major European economies were contracting because of the credit crunch, Poland was the only country in Europe to experience economic growth.

There has been marked success in creating a market economy and attracting foreign investment. Germany is now Poland's biggest trading partner. There was a massive movement of workers to western Europe in the years after Poland joined the EU, but the exodus slowed down after the global economic crisis took hold.

Poland still has a huge farming sector - agriculture accounts for about 60% of the country's total land area - but the sector remains hampered by inefficiency, structural problems and lack of investment.

Warsaw's profile on the international stage was raised by its support for the US-led military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan. Polish peacekeeping troops served in south-central Iraq from 2003 until 2008, and the country has also contributed a sizeable contingent to the Nato peacekeeping force in Afghanistan.

Poland has seen periods of independence as well as periods of domination by other countries

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Portugal profile

4 July 2013 Last updated at 09:41 GMT Portugal, a country with a rich history of seafaring and discovery, looks out from the Iberian peninsula into the Atlantic Ocean.

When it handed over its last overseas territory, Macau, to Chinese administration in 1999, it brought to an end a long and sometimes turbulent era as a colonial power.

The roots of that era stretch back to the 15th century when Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama put to sea in search of a passage to India. By the 16th century these sailors had helped build a huge empire embracing Brazil as well as swathes of Africa and Asia. There are still some 200 million Portuguese speakers around the world today.

Portugal's history has had a lasting impact on the culture of the country with Moorish and Oriental influences in architecture and the arts. Traditional folk dance and music, particularly the melancholy fado, remain vibrant.

Portugal includes several offshore islands, including Madeira and the Azores, pictured Continue reading the main story Politics: Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho from the Social Democrats heads a coalition with the Popular Party Economy: Eurozone member Portugal was bailed out by the EU and IMF in 2011 with a 78bn-euro package. The loan came in exchange for a pledge to reduce the public deficitInternational: Portugal is a founding member of Nato and joined the EEC (later EU) in 1986

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

For almost half of the 20th century Portugal was a dictatorship in which for decades Antonio de Oliveira Salazar was the key figure. The dictatorship's stubborn refusal to relinquish its grip on the former colonies as demands for independence gained momentum there resulted in expensive wars in Africa.

This period was brought to an end in 1974 in a bloodless coup, picturesquely known as the Revolution of the Carnations, which ushered in a new democracy.

By the end of 1975 all of Portugal's former colonies in Africa were independent of Lisbon.

Since becoming a member of the then European Community in 1986, Portugal's traditionally largely agricultural economy became increasingly diversified and orientated towards the service sector.

It experienced solid growth in the 1990s, but GDP per head remains well under the EU average. The 2008 financial crisis left Portugal with a ballooning budget deficit, and in 2011 it became the third EU country after Greece and Ireland to ask international lenders for emergency assistance.

A 78bn-euro EU/IMF bailout was awarded on condition that Portugal reduces its deficit to bring it closer to the official EU target of 3% of GDP, leaving the government with little choice but to pass a series of austerity budgets. By mid-2013 this was putting severe pressure on the coalition government.

Portugal's Porto region has for long been a source of fine wines

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Portugal profile

4 July 2013 Last updated at 09:41 GMT Portugal, a country with a rich history of seafaring and discovery, looks out from the Iberian peninsula into the Atlantic Ocean.

When it handed over its last overseas territory, Macau, to Chinese administration in 1999, it brought to an end a long and sometimes turbulent era as a colonial power.

The roots of that era stretch back to the 15th century when Portuguese explorers such as Vasco da Gama put to sea in search of a passage to India. By the 16th century these sailors had helped build a huge empire embracing Brazil as well as swathes of Africa and Asia. There are still some 200 million Portuguese speakers around the world today.

Portugal's history has had a lasting impact on the culture of the country with Moorish and Oriental influences in architecture and the arts. Traditional folk dance and music, particularly the melancholy fado, remain vibrant.

Portugal includes several offshore islands, including Madeira and the Azores, pictured Continue reading the main story Politics: Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho from the Social Democrats heads a coalition with the Popular Party Economy: Eurozone member Portugal was bailed out by the EU and IMF in 2011 with a 78bn-euro package. The loan came in exchange for a pledge to reduce the public deficitInternational: Portugal is a founding member of Nato and joined the EEC (later EU) in 1986

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

For almost half of the 20th century Portugal was a dictatorship in which for decades Antonio de Oliveira Salazar was the key figure. The dictatorship's stubborn refusal to relinquish its grip on the former colonies as demands for independence gained momentum there resulted in expensive wars in Africa.

This period was brought to an end in 1974 in a bloodless coup, picturesquely known as the Revolution of the Carnations, which ushered in a new democracy.

By the end of 1975 all of Portugal's former colonies in Africa were independent of Lisbon.

Since becoming a member of the then European Community in 1986, Portugal's traditionally largely agricultural economy became increasingly diversified and orientated towards the service sector.

It experienced solid growth in the 1990s, but GDP per head remains well under the EU average. The 2008 financial crisis left Portugal with a ballooning budget deficit, and in 2011 it became the third EU country after Greece and Ireland to ask international lenders for emergency assistance.

A 78bn-euro EU/IMF bailout was awarded on condition that Portugal reduces its deficit to bring it closer to the official EU target of 3% of GDP, leaving the government with little choice but to pass a series of austerity budgets. By mid-2013 this was putting severe pressure on the coalition government.

Portugal's Porto region has for long been a source of fine wines

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Romania profile

8 May 2013 Last updated at 10:12 GMT The largest of the Balkan countries, Romania has dramatic mountain scenery and a coastline on the Black Sea.

It has seen numerous empires come and go from the Roman, to the Ottoman, to the Austro-Hungarian.

After World War II the country was under communist rule although the leadership pursued a foreign policy independent of that of the Soviet Union.

Romania, a slower developer than other former communist countries of eastern Europe, took a major step away from its past when it was one of seven countries to join Nato in late March 2004. Its strategic location and Black Sea air and naval bases make it attractive to the alliance.

Romania joined the European Union in 2007 Continue reading the main story Politics: Traian Basescu has been president since 2004. In May 2012, Victor Ponta became Romania's third prime minister in less than six months. He leads a centre-left governmentEconomy: After years of growth, Romania was hit by the global financial downturn. In 2010, it implemented austerity measures demanded in an IMF-led bailout International: Romania joined Nato in 2004 and the EU in 2007

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

There have been several complex exchanges of territory over the years, not least when the area formerly known as Bessarabia went to the USSR following a pact between Hitler and Stalin. That region now forms a large part of the Republic of Moldova.

The legacy of communist-era leader Nicolae Ceausescu, who was feared and loathed in approximately equal measure, lingered long after the uprising which brought his execution on Christmas Day 1989.

Former communists dominated politics until 1996 when a centrist government came to power. It became involved in prolonged political feuding which did little or nothing to promote economic reform. The left returned in 2000 when Ion Iliescu was re-elected president.

Failure to push ahead sufficiently with reforms meant that the country was not on the list of new EU members four years later. However, in April 2005 Bucharest signed the EU accession treaty, paving the way for Romania eventually to join the union in January 2007.

The Romanian economy suffered badly in the global financial crisis of 2008, prompting the government to launch a draconian austerity programme in 2010. This led to major street rallies and clashes with police in January 2012, which brought down the government of Prime Minister Emil Boc and ushered in a period of political instability.

Parliament Palace, constructed at the time of dictator Nicolae Ceausescu, is reputed to be the world's second largest building after the Pentagon in the United States

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San Marino country profile

3 July 2013 Last updated at 10:45 GMT Landlocked San Marino is one of the world's smallest countries. Surrounded by Italy, it is an echo from an era when city-states proliferated across Europe.

Mount Titano, part of the Appennine range, dominates San Marino's landscape. Three defensive fortresses perch on Titano's slopes, looking out to the Adriatic coast.

San Marino is said to be the world's oldest surviving republic.

Tradition has it that the country was founded in the fourth century AD by a devout Christian stonemason called Marinus, who took refuge there and set up a small community. Its rugged isolation helped the enclave to develop and keep its independence.

San Marino - the world oldest surviving republic

An 1862 friendship and cooperation treaty with Italy, which has since been revised and expanded, reinforced San Marino's independence.

Tourism dominates the economy of the 61 square kilometre (23.6 square miles) republic, which plays host to more than three million visitors every year.

Postage stamps and coins - keenly sought by collectors - are important sources of revenue.

As one of Europe's tax havens, San Marino has traditionally attracted a large inflow of cash from non-residents, but in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008-9 this status has come increasingly under threat, and the republic has pledged to make its banking system more transparent.

Mount Titano dominates San Marino's landscape

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San Marino country profile

3 July 2013 Last updated at 10:45 GMT Landlocked San Marino is one of the world's smallest countries. Surrounded by Italy, it is an echo from an era when city-states proliferated across Europe.

Mount Titano, part of the Appennine range, dominates San Marino's landscape. Three defensive fortresses perch on Titano's slopes, looking out to the Adriatic coast.

San Marino is said to be the world's oldest surviving republic.

Tradition has it that the country was founded in the fourth century AD by a devout Christian stonemason called Marinus, who took refuge there and set up a small community. Its rugged isolation helped the enclave to develop and keep its independence.

San Marino - the world oldest surviving republic

An 1862 friendship and cooperation treaty with Italy, which has since been revised and expanded, reinforced San Marino's independence.

Tourism dominates the economy of the 61 square kilometre (23.6 square miles) republic, which plays host to more than three million visitors every year.

Postage stamps and coins - keenly sought by collectors - are important sources of revenue.

As one of Europe's tax havens, San Marino has traditionally attracted a large inflow of cash from non-residents, but in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008-9 this status has come increasingly under threat, and the republic has pledged to make its banking system more transparent.

Mount Titano dominates San Marino's landscape

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Serbia country profile

28 June 2013 Last updated at 13:49 GMT Serbia became a stand-alone sovereign republic in the summer of 2006 after Montenegro voted in a referendum for independence from the Union of Serbia and Montenegro.

When the vote was followed by a formal declaration of independence by Montenegro, a special session of parliament in Belgrade declared Serbia to be the legal successor to the now defunct Union.

Serbia and Montenegro, the two republics still left in the old Yugoslav federation, had agreed in 2002 to scrap remnants of the ex-communist state and create the new, looser Union of Serbia and Montenegro.

The EU-brokered deal under which the union came into being in 2003 was intended to stabilise the region by settling Montenegrin demands for independence and preventing further changes to Balkan borders.

Serbia has applied to become a member of the European Union Continue reading the main story Politics: Serb nationalist leader Tomislav Nikolic won the May 2012 presidential poll in a run-off against Boris TadicEconomy: The services-based economy slowed amid the global recession and eurozone crisis. Unemployment is highInternational: Serbia became a candidate for EU accession in early 2012. Serbia refuses to recognise Kosovo's independence, but normalised ties with its former province in 2013

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

The same agreement also contained the seeds of the Union's dissolution. It stipulated that after three years the two republics could hold referendums on whether to keep or scrap it. Montenegro duly voted for independence in a referendum in May 2006.

The two republics had been united in one form or another for nearly 90 years. With separation from Montenegro, Serbia is cut off from the Adriatic Sea and becomes landlocked.

Yugoslav era

The end of the Union of Serbia and Montenegro marked the closing chapter in the history of the separation of the six republics of the old Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia which was proclaimed in 1945 and comprised Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina and Macedonia.

Under Yugoslavia's authoritarian communist leader, Josip Broz Tito, the lid was kept on ethnic tensions. The federation lasted for over 10 years after his death in 1980, but under Serbian nationalist leader Slobodan Milosevic it fell apart through the 1990s.

The secession of Slovenia and Macedonia came relatively peacefully, but there were devastating wars in Croatia and Bosnia. Serbia and Montenegro together formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between 1992 and 2003.

Kosovo

In 1998 violence flared in the autonomous province of Kosovo in Serbia. The Kosovo Liberation Army, supported by the majority ethnic Albanians, came out in open rebellion against Serbian rule. International pressure on Milosevic grew amid the escalating violence.

Nato launched air strikes in Kosovo and Serbia in March 1999. An exodus of ethnic Albanians to neighbouring countries gathered pace. The UN took over administration of the region after Serbian forces had been driven out.

Kosovo declared independence on 17 February 2008 after the failure of UN-brokered talks on the status of the province. Serbia said the declaration was illegal, and other countries are divided as to whether to recognise it.

Road to Europe

In late 2005, the EU began talks with Belgrade on the possibility of reaching a Stabilisation and Association Agreement. These were called off some months later because of the continuing failure of the Serbian authorities to arrest several war crimes suspects.

One of the most notorious of these, the former Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic, was arrested in Belgrade in July 2008 by Serbian security forces and extradited to The Hague, weeks after a pro-Western government took office. European foreign ministers praised the arrest as a significant step for Serbia in its efforts to join the EU.

In December 2009 Serbia formally submitted its application to join the EU. The beginning of accession talks was delayed while two major Serbian war crimes suspects were still at large, but with the arrest of former Bosnian Serb military commander Ratko Mladic and Croatian Serb leader Goran Hadzic in 2011, this block to Serbia gaining EU candidate status was removed.

The European Commission duly recommended Serbia for EU candidate status in a report in October 2011, but insisted that the opening of membership talks was conditional on Serbia normalising its ties with Kosovo.

The deadlock over this issue was finally broken with the signing of an EU-brokered deal between Belgrade and Pristina in April 2013. However, Serbia insists that the normalisation agreement - which grants a high degree of autonomy to Serb-majority areas in northern Kosovo - does not mean that it has recognised its former province's independence.

Serbia's EU accession talks are currently due to open by January 2014.

Relations with Russia

Although the current Serbian government is pro-Western and sees eventual membership of the EU as being in the country's best interests, Serbia is traditionally an ally of Russia, which supported its opposition to Kosovo's independence.

In 2008, Serbia-Russia ties were further strengthened by the signing of a major energy deal, and in October 2009 Russia granted Serbia a 1bn euro (£0.9bn) loan to help it cover its budget deficit after the economy was hit hard by the global downturn.

The election of the nationalist Tomislav Nikolic as president in 2012 is likely to see further overtures towards Russia, as Mr Nikolic has declared his intention of developing ties with both the European Union and Moscow.

The Danube, Europe's second longest river, passes through the Serbian capital Belgrade

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Slovakia country profile

8 January 2013 Last updated at 16:20 GMT Right at the heart of Europe and with a history intertwined with that of its neighbours, Slovakia has proudly preserved its own language and distinct cultural traditions.

It was part of Czechoslovakia until the "velvet divorce" in January 1993.

Having uncoupled itself from its western neighbour, Slovakia at first struggled to prove itself as an independent democracy, but by the time of the twentieth anniversary of the "velvet divorce" in January 2013, it had come to be seen as one of Europe's biggest success stories.

The first five years after independence were marked by frosty relations with the European Union and Nato as a result of concerns over the Slovak leadership's democratic credentials.

There was growing international criticism of the lack of respect for minority rights and the democratic process shown by the authoritarian prime minister, Vladimir Meciar. Under Mr Meciar, the country's public debt ballooned and it was shunned by foreign investors.

The iconic Mount Krivan features prominently in Slovak popular culture Continue reading the main story Politics: PM Robert Fico from the leftist Smer party won general elections in March 2012. He was a critic of the former government's austerity programmeEconomy: Eurozone member Slovakia has seen rapid economic growth, driven by exports of electronic goods and carsInternational: Slovakia joined the EU in 2004 and the eurozone in 2009. Its forces have taken part in the Nato-led operation in Afghanistan, and in peacekeeping duties in Kosovo

Country profiles compiled by BBC Monitoring

He led a string of coalition governments pursuing nationalist and populist policies until October 1998, when an alliance of liberals, centrists, left-wingers and ethnic Hungarians ousted him, forming a new coalition with Mikulas Dzurinda as prime minister.

Under Mr Dzurinda, Slovakia underwent a complete change of direction. His government forged ahead with an economic reform programme and was rewarded with a boost in foreign investment. It also tried to improve the lot of minorities.

Slovakia's ethnic Hungarian community constitutes about a tenth of the country's population, and the status of this substantial minority has long been a source of tension between Slovakia and Hungary.

Mr Dzurinda's government oversaw Slovakia's entry into the EU and Nato in 2004, but the austerity measures it introduced made it unpopular with voters, and in 2006 it was replaced by a centre-left coalition led by Robert Fico.

Mr Fico's government relied on the support of the Slovak National Party, and his premiership was marred by controversy over treatment of the Hungarian minority. He lost the 2010 parliamentary election, but returned for a second term as prime minister after winning the 2012 election.

Slovakia also has a significant Romany population which suffers disproportionately high levels of poverty and social deprivation.

The post-war Benes decrees, which called for the expulsion of 3 million ethnic Germans and 600,000 ethnic Hungarians from then-Czechoslovakia and the confiscation of their property, remain a sensitive issue in relations with neighbours.

Bratislava Castle is one of the capital's landmarks and towers over the Danube River

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Slovenia country profile

5 June 2013 Last updated at 13:26 GMT Slovenia is a small country in Central Europe, but contains within its borders Alpine mountains, thick forests, historic cities and a short Adriatic coastline, It initially enjoyed substantial economic and political stability after gaining independence from Yugoslavia.

Slovenia was the first former Yugoslav republic to join the European Union, in May 2004 - a few months after joining Nato.

Unlike Croatia or Bosnia-Hercegovina, Slovenia's independence from Yugoslavia was almost bloodless.

The move was undoubtedly aided by Western European recognition of the Slovenes' aspirations and the low proportion of other ethnic groups in the country.

Ljubljana's castle overlooks the capital's old town Continue reading the main story Politics: A centre-left coalition takes over in March 2013 following the collapse of its predecessor over corruption allegationsEconomy: Slovenia's export-dependent economy was badly hit in the global economic crisis. Austerity measures have met with popular resistanceInternational: Slovenia joined the EU and Nato in 2004, and the eurozone in 2007. There is a dispute with Croatia over an area of land and sea in the northern Adriatic

Country profiles complied by BBC Monitoring

Slovenia had always been the most prosperous region of the former Yugoslavia and found the transition from a state economy to the free market easier than most.

On 1 January 2007, it became the first of the new EU member states to join the eurozone. A year later, it became the first former communist state to take on the EU presidency.

Long regarded as one of the best-performing new EU members, Slovenia was dragged into a deep recession by the European financial crisis in 2012, prompting fears that it may need an international bailout. The government announced plans for tough austerity measures, sparking mass protests.

Politically, Slovenia was the most liberal republic within Yugoslavia. Throughout the 1980s there was pressure from Slovenia for greater political freedom and pluralism in the federation.

This reputation was tarnished after independence when thousands of nationals of other former Yugoslav republics were removed from population records and lost residency rights.

Parliament later passed a bill restoring their citizenship but a referendum held shortly before EU entry in 2004 overturned it by an overwhelming margin. Human rights groups expressed dismay at the move which embarrassed the leadership as it prepared to celebrate EU membership.

Slovenia's relations with Croatia have long been strained on account of a rumbling dispute over sea and land borders dating back to the break-up of Yugoslavia.

Slovenia dropped its opposition to Croatia's joining Nato in March 2009, but continued to block its neighbour's EU membership bid for a further eight months - only agreeing to lift the veto after a deal on the Piran border dispute in November 2009.

Slovenia used to be part of Yugoslavia and broke away with relatively little conflict

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